Illusion of control in gambling behavior in a non-clinical sample of adults aged 40-75 (2026)

The illusion of control (IoC) is a cognitive distortion implicated in risky and problem gambling. This study aimed to validate a comprehensive IoC measure, the Multi-Dimensional Rating Scale for Illusion of Control in Gambling (EEMDIC), in a large non-clinical sample of adult and aging gamblers, and to clarify how IoC relates to gambling severity, game type, and age. A total of 1,311 participants aged 40-75 completed the EEMDIC, the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI), and questions on gambling habits and sociodemographics. Exploratory (n = 649) and confirmatory (n = 662) factor analyses assessed scale structure. ANOVAs, linear regressions, Mann-Whitney U tests, and Spearman correlations examined associations with game category, PGSI scores, education, occupation, and age. Factor analyses supported a reduced 14-item EEMDIC with four coherent factors: Luck, Skill, Strategy, and Rituals/Superstitious Behaviors. Higher EEMDIC scores, especially on primary-control dimensions (Skill, Strategy), were associated with greater gambling severity and engagement in strategic betting (sports, horse racing). Education correlated negatively with IoC, and occupational differences emerged. Age was modestly but significantly associated with lower IoC: it explained ~2.8% of total variance and 0.9-4.1% across factors. Framing on gains or losses showed no age effect after controlling for PGSI. The EEMDIC is a reliable, multidimensional tool distinguishing primary and secondary control beliefs. Findings link primary-control beliefs to gambling harm and show modest age-related declines in IoC. The scale can inform targeted prevention and tailored interventions across game types and sociodemographic groups. [Author's abstract]